Find the best online essay writing services with us

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Cuánto se demora sacar la visa americana no inmigrante

Cunto se demora sacar la visa americana no inmigrante Los trmites para la visa americana no inmigrante se pueden demorar varias semanas, dependiendo del consulado o embajada en el que se solicita. Pero es posible estimar cuntos dà ­as pasan desde el dà ­a en que se inician los trmites al de la entrevista. A partir de la entrevista, la respuesta es rpida o incluso inmediata, tanto la aprobacià ³n como la denegacià ³n. La excepcià ³n son los casos en los que la solicitud entra en una fase de demora administrativa. En este artà ­culo se explican cà ³mo verificar el tiempo de demora segà ºn el tipo de visa y consulado, quà © puede suceder despuà ©s de la entrevista, cul es el formulario adicional conocido como DS-5535 que puede pedir el oficial consular  y por quà © es recomendable solicitar la visa con tiempo suficiente antes de la fecha planeada para viajar a Estados Unidos y por quà © no se deben comprar los boletos antes de tener la visa aprobada en mano. En el caso de estar interesados en la visa de inmigrante para la tarjeta de residencia permanente este artà ­culo no aplica. En otras palabras, la informacià ³n que se detalla a continuacià ³n aplica solamente a las visas no inmigrante como, por ejemplo, la de turista, estudiante, trabajo temporal, inversià ³n, intercambio, etc. Cà ³mo verificar eltiempo de demora de los trmites para la visa Desde que una persona solicita una cita para la visa hasta que obtiene el visado transcurren varios dà ­as, o incluso meses. Todo depende de la Embajada o Consulado en el que se haga la gestià ³n, del tipo de visa y tambià ©n de las caracterà ­sticas personales del solicitante. Para saber con bastante exactitud cunto hay que esperar desde que se hacen la citas para las visas hasta que se realizan las entrevistas en la oficina consular se puede consultar la herramienta que el Departamento de Estado ha creado para este fin. Simplemente se debe buscar en la cajita que aparece en esa pgina de internet el nombre de la ciudad en la que est ubicada la oficina consular a la que corresponde decidir si concede o rechaza la solicitud de visa. Una vez elegida la ciudad, aparecer una estimacià ³n en dà ­as sobre el tiempo que hay que esperar hasta que se realiza la entrevista. Aparecern varias estimaciones, dependiendo del tipo de visa que se solicita. Ejemplos de tiempos de demora segà ºn los consulados Por ejemplo en el momento en que se escribià ³ este artà ­culo,  si una persona en Bogot, Colombia, solicita una visa de turista, deber esperar 22 dà ­as naturales (segà ºn la fecha en la que este artà ­culo fue escrito. Verificar el actual) para ser entrevistado en la Embajada americana y otros dos dà ­as laborales para que se procese su peticià ³n, si es aprobada. Pero si solicita una visa de estudiante, la espera para la entrevista se reduce a siete dà ­as naturales, precisando dos dà ­as laborales para procesar la visa aprobada. Sin embargo, en Buenos Aires la peticià ³n de entrevista para una visa de turista es de 29 dà ­as naturales y el procesamiento de las aprobadas es de cinco dà ­as laborales. Dà ­as naturales y laborales en la tramitacià ³n de las visas Es conveniente prestar atencià ³n a la distincià ³n entre dà ­as naturales (calendar days) y dà ­as laborales (workdays). Cuando se habla de los primeros, se cuentan todos los dà ­as, incluidos los sbados, domingos y feriados. Por el contrario, si se refiere a dà ­as laborales se computa sà ³lo de lunes a viernes, excluyendo los feriados de Estados Unidos y los del paà ­s en los que se encuentra la oficina consular. Quà © pasa despuà ©s de la entrevista en el consulado Pueden darse 4  situaciones: En primer lugar, la visa es aprobada. Aunque cada consulado tiene un trmite distinto para entregar a su dueà ±o el pasaporte con la visa estampada en general puede hablarse que toma menos de siete dà ­as.  Estas son las  posibilidades se tiene de que aprueben la visa de turista  segà ºn el consulado en que se solicita. En segundo lugar, la visa entra en trmite administrativo.  Es decir, no es aprobada ni rechazada. Es lo que se conoce como procedimiento administrativo 221g. La razà ³n es que se requiere realizar ms investigacià ³n antes de llegar a una conclusià ³n final. Esta es una razà ³n muy importante para no dejar la solicitud de la visa para à ºltima hora, ya que puede surgir este problema. En tercer lugar, que el oficial consular pida que se llene un nuevo formulario, que se detalla en el siguiente apartado y que incluye informacià ³n sobre redes sociales. En cuarto lugar, la solicitud de visa es rechazada. Las causas pueden ser muy variadas. Estas son las 20 ms comunes. por causa de inelegibilidad. Adems, hay que tener en cuenta estas 22 causas que convierten a una persona en inadmisible para Estados Unidos y que por lo tanto hacen que la visa no se apruebe, no se renueve e incluso que teniendo visa vigente se niegue la entrada cuando se llega al control migratorio en la aduana americana. En los casos de negacià ³n de la visa, es importante saber cundo se  puede volver a solicitarla  y quà © debe cambiar para tener à ©xito en la nueva peticià ³n. Formulario solicitando informacià ³n sobre redes sociales El oficial consular est autorizada a pedir que se llene un nuevo formulario en el que se solicita, entre otras, la siguiente informacià ³n: Lugares de trabajo y residencia durante los à ºltimos 15 aà ±osPaà ­ses que se han visitado en los à ºltimos 15 aà ±osTodos los nà ºmeros de los pasaportes que se hayan utilizado previamente al actualTodas las cuentas de correo electrà ³nico que se han tenido en los à ºltimos 15 aà ±osTodas las cuentas que se han tenido en redes sociales como Facebook, Instagram o Twitter en los à ºltimos 5 aà ±os. En principio est previsto que los oficiales consulares soliciten que se rellene el formulario DS-5535 solo en los casos en los que la identidad del solicitante pueda confundirse con la de otra persona o en supuestos que afectan a la seguridad de los Estados Unidos, incluidos los casos de pertenencia a pandillas. Este formulario es relativamente nuevo y, por lo tanto, se desconoce cunto tiempo demorar en ser tramitada  y verificada la informacià ³n que contiene, por lo que no se puede estimar el tiempo de demora para sacar la visa en los casos en los que el oficial consular pida este documento. El solicitante de la visa puede negarse a dar la informacià ³n, pero la visa no ser aprobada. En la actualidad, el gobierno de Estados Unidos est intentando implementar como obligatorio la comunicacià ³n de todos los nombres usados redes sociales, correos electrà ³nicos y telà ©fonos por parte de todos los solicitantes de visas, tanto inmigrantes como no inmigrantes. De tener à ©xito, afectarà ­a a 700 mil potenciales inmigrantes y 14 millones de visitantes temporales anualmente. Sin embargo, un nutrido grupo de organizaciones de defensa de las libertades civiles e individuales se est oponiendo a esta medida. Situaciones de urgencia y quià ©n puede viajar a USA sin visa Si se presentase la necesidad de obtener una visa urgentemente es posible solicitar una  visa humanitaria  en casos muy limitados. Chilenos y espaà ±oles  pueden viajar a Estados Unidos sin visa para hacer turismo o para negocios. Si llegan por avià ³n, necesitan una  Autorizacià ³n Electrà ³nica conocida como ESTA. Este es el  listado completo de paà ­ses cuyos ciudadanos pueden viajar sin visa. En el caso de personas de doble nacionalidad, es importante saber cunto se puede ingresar sin visa a los Estados Unidos. En la actualidad, las personas que pueden viajar sin visa y rellenan el formulario ESTA se encuentran con una pregunta opcional en la que se solicita sus nombres en redes sociales. Test de respuestas mà ºltiples Se recomienda tomar  este test de 19 preguntas que sirve para comprobar los conocimientos bsicos sobre la visa de turista. Para evitar errores tontos que pueden dar lugar a su cancelacià ³n o a que no se apruebe. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

President Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7000 words

President Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt - Essay Example He was born in the Bacos district of Alexandria on Jan 15th 1918 (Aburish 2004). He was the first born of thirty-year old Abdel Nasser Hussein who had been transferred to Alexandria as a postal clerk. The fact that his father's position merited transfer from one part of Egypt to another suggests a middle-class status. During that time, only upper classes had family names, the remainder of the populations, peasantry and non-aristocrats, were named after their fathers. Without a family name, he had to use his father's name, Abdel Nasser Hussein. Gamal's grandfather, Hussein Sultan, belonged to the small class of local notables and owned a few acres of land in a village where most of the inhabitants tenanted the land of rich pashas in Cairo. The pashas who comprised less than 2 percent of the population in the 1930's owned more than 65 percent of the land and employed and exploited over four million peasants who tenanted for them. A tenant farmer usually lived off two acres of land and his small share of what they produced. He hardly had any rights and when elections were held, was told to vote accordingly to the pasha's wishes. There was little social mobility since banks did not deal with the poor. As a result very few overcame their peasant background. Egypt has been rightly described by historians as a "hydraulic society", totally dependent on irrigation from the Nile river. Five percent of the land was intensively farmed and it happened to be the only part that was cultivated. Apart from agriculture, the country had no other resources. Years of drought and the threat of crop failure forced many farmers including Hussein Sultan who owned small plots of land to adopt other vocations to protect themselves. Adbel Nasser Hussein married above his class. Adbels wife was the daughter of a wealthy coal merchant, Mohamed Hamad and seemed to be homely person who did the duty of a wife. When she died in 1926 leaving eight year old Gamal and his three younger brothers, Gamal had been living in Cairo with his paternal uncle Khalil (Aburish 2004). According to rumour Gamal's father did not tell him about his mother's death for months and did not get a chance to attend the funeral. It is still left to speculation as to why Gamal was in Cairo. If Fahima was ill then she could not look after him. Or, Gamal showed much promise in academics and his parents decided to send him to a better school in a bigger city. Whatever the truth, there is little doubt that Fahima was a major influence in her son's life and contributed to his education. Her forty dollar monthly income, received from her family, went to educate her four children. Fahima's noble gesture was returned with Gamal's interest in his studies. There is also speculation that Fahima was responsible for sending Gamal to a school superior to the Koranic one in Beni Mur. Gamal felt deeply saddened at not being informed of his mother's death when his father remarried two years later. In the Arab world it is not unusual for widowers to remarry after their spouse's death. It's quite common to see the children of widowers to be looked after by relatives and other people. The carrier of bad news is usually frowned upon. Even after learning of his mother's demise Gamal continued to live with his relatives but the event left a deep mark in his psyche. Gamal Nasser, or

Global blog project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global blog project - Essay Example Previous Knowledge With the increase in communication between the Generation Y through social networking and the internet, word-of-mouth has greatly changed the marketing and advertising landscape. Television is fast becoming an obsolete advertising medium for Generation Y. Thus, Marketers have to evolve their practices of market segmentation and targeting in order to develop a brand or a campaign that is accepted by Generation Y. Methodology I plan to discuss the changes in advertising medium and the changes that marketing teams have to make in order to cater to Generation Y. Genre 1: Blog The following blog provides a good insight to marketers regarding the psyche of Generation Y and advertising tactics that marketers could consider: Summer Lovin' For Gen Y with Live Concerts and Mobile Marketing We (referring to the audience in general or specifically potential marketers) all know that no demographic is changing as quickly as the coveted Gen Y demographic.  We also know that for a growing number of brands, they're the segment that is not only the most important, but also the most difficult to engage. But what marketers may not know is that experiential marketing is the best and surest way to reach this elusive set, especially this summer.   Between concert festivals, outdoor sporting events, travel and the general excitement that comes from being "out for summer," the coming months are the perfect time for marketers to get out and about themselves, engaging with these consumers face-to-face. Gen Y now numbers more than 60 million. They're around town, leveraging social media and taking control of every second of their lives and most importantly they are on mobile. This summer they'll tune into whatever they want as easily as they'll tune it out. As a result, brand marketers around the world are retuning how they go to market. There are some interesting stats from a recently conducted a survey with the Event Marketing Institute, surveying several thousand Gen Y consumers. The results are surprising and would help to shape marketing plans as marketers try to reach this elusive demographic.   94% of Gen Y consumers say they would be more likely to buy a product as a result of a good experience at an event. Think about it. If someone went to a concert for an up-and-coming pop star and left wanting more, they would be more likely to buy her CD or download her single, right? But creating that "good experience" is no easy task  Ã‚   MillerCoors understands this and is ramping up mobile at every turn. Gen Y'ers is the first generation that has grown up with the internet as a normal part of everyday life and now the web is in their hands 24/7. In fact, almost half of those surveyed have posted something (a photo, a status update, a Tweet) from or during an event. Because of this proliferation of technology, Gen Y presents a different set of challenges for marketers. Marketers in all brand categories need to plan campaigns that connect w ith consumers, whether they're live or on mobile or both at the same time, and the experiences have to reach consumers' minds. Clearly, marketing to Gen Y is still a tough audience to completely crack. To succeed, marketers need a new rulebook. Here are four rules for ensuring experiences make the critical connection to the Gen Y consumer: Let them in. And we mean all the way in. It is common knowledge that savvy brands use experiential marketing to create ongoing dialogues with consumers. What one might not know is that those conversations now give

Personality Analysis Essay Example for Free

Personality Analysis Essay Most people understand personality as the image that people display and project to the outside world. However, personality is more than this and includes even the psychological experience that is hidden inside us (Ewen, 2003). The word personality is a derivative of a Latin word-‘persona’ who’s meaning is ‘mask’ (Ewen, 2003). Personality analysis can therefore be referred to as the comprehensive investigation of all the aspects relating to personality. For many years people have tried to explain behavior as well as what it is that makes a person. In an attempt to offer explanations, personality theories have been advanced some of which are the existential/humanistic and dispositional theories. Just like many other theories, these personality theories are fallible and they cannot be proved. These theories have their similarities as well as their differences. Dispositional theories of personality try to explain personality using innate tendencies. These are the tendencies that individuals are born with and they can be hereditary or not. Dispositional theorists believe that genes play a big part in determining one’s personality. Words and phrases are mostly used to reflect this theory (Weiten, 2010). For example when one says that someone is kind-hearted. These theories are also known as trait theories and trait theorists’ assumption is that physique does not determine behavior but that the stable personality traits are the ones that determine behavior. Personality traits are described as stable qualities that one displays in all the situations. These theories were advanced in reaction to a personality theory known as type personality theory which linked human physique to certain temperaments or personality characteristics. Several people are associated with the development of trait theories and examples include Gordon Allport, Lewis Goldberg, and Hans Eysenck but the person who originally introduced the trait theories was known as Carl Jung (Nicholas, 2008). Carl Jung is the one who introduced the idea of temperaments and his theory purported that one is either born an introvert or an extrovert and that this cannot be changed. Gordon Allport described personality as a combination of both mental and physical personality aspects (Nicholas, 2008). He described personality as a dynamic organisation meaning that the aspects of personality keep on changing throughout an individual’s life in response to situations (Nicholas, 2008). These personality changes occur only to a certain degree and the personality remains relatively stable over time. Allport’s trait theory also portrays personality as naturally deterministic. This means that behavior, personality and thought are influenced and controlled by a mechanism that is inborn. In development of his theory, Allport categorized all the words contained in the dictionary that describe personality traits into central traits, cardinal traits and secondary traits (Nicholas, 2008). The cardinal traits are those that dominate in the whole life of an individual. People who exhibit these traits are rare and people tend to associate these people with these traits. Central traits on the other hand are less dominating compared to cardinal traits. They are the characteristics that constitute the foundation of an individual’s personality and are commonly used by people to describe others. For instance when one says that someone else is intelligent they are describing those people using the central traits. The last personality characteristics are secondary traits. These are the traits that manifest depending on situation and are sometimes related to preferences or attitudes (Ewen, 1998). Lewis Goldberg and Costa McCrae among others expanded the theory of Fiske D. and this led to development of the big five model. The personality traits attributed to this theory are classified under five categories. One is extraversion where some people are social and outgoing. The second one is conscientiousness where individuals display high levels of organization and thoughtfulness (Oliver, Robins Pervin, 2008). The third is openness where individuals display insight and imagination. The fourth category is agreeableness where individuals are trustworthy, kind, and affectionate. The last one is neuroticism where individuals with this trait tend to be anxious, sad, moody and emotionally unstable (Oliver et al. , 2008). Based on this theory, individuals who have traits such as extraversion and agreeableness will get along well with people while people with neuroticism traits will not get along with people. Hans Eysenck built on Jung’s idea by approaching the idea of temperaments from a mathematical point of view. Since his theory is built on the work of Jung, then this theory also assumes that a part of personality is genetically determined. Jung said that though it was impossible for an introvert to change to an introvert, depending on the situation one can modify their behavior (Boeree, 2009). He created a test that was used to determine people’s traits. Based on his theory there are several personality characteristics. One of these is introversion and extraversion where extroverts are outgoing and introverts are reserved. The other personality trait is emotional stability/neuroticism where individuals with a high level of neuroticism exhibit nervousness and emotional instability (Boeree, 2009). The last personality trait is psychoticism where people find it hard to deal with the reality (Boeree, 2009). These personality traits determine how individuals interact with others. People who are extraverts tend to get along well with people as they are outgoing while introverts are not social and may be viewed as unfriendly. Another thing is that people with psychoticism do not relate well with people as they tend to be hostile and manipulative. Humanistic personality theories approach to personality is phenomenological. This phenomenological approach focuses on the subjective experiences of individuals. The leading theorists associated with humanistic theories are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. These theories are known as humanistic because their emphasis is on the unique characteristics of people. According to these theories, all people have an inborn tendency to become self-actualised and that self actualization serves as the main force that drives behavior (Mitterer Coon, 2008). This self-actualisation is an ongoing process where one naturally grows towards fulfilling their potential. Humanistic theorists acknowledge the uniqueness of personalities as people’s perceptions of the world are unique to them. These perceptions are reflected in the way people behave. According to these theorists, people’s perceptions are not determined by their personality traits, their reinforcement history, or their ego development (Mitterer Coon, 2008). They further say that by nature people are good. Carl Rogers’s humanistic personality theory portrays personality as being composed of structural components. These components include self, self-regard, self-ideal, and self-concept (Mitterer Coon, 2008). Of these components, Rogers says that the main component is self and it consists of concepts, ideas, perceptions, and values that define an individual (Mitterer Coon, 2008). According to him, a person’s behavior and perception of the world is influenced by their self-concept. In addition, he says that in addition to self-concept every individual has an ideal self and that happiness and fulfillment are increased if the ideal self is closer to the self concept (Mitterer Coon, 2008). He further says that a phenomenal field is composed of both an individual and their world and that reaction to the world involves the individual as a whole and not merely parts of the individual (Mitterer Coon, 2008). Maslow’s humanistic personality theory is similar to that of Rogers. Maslow just like Rogers believed that individuals have a tendency to grow towards self-actualisation. In addition, just like Rogers’s theory Maslow’s theory views individuals as beings whose approach to current issues and perceptions is subjective (Engler, 2008). According to Maslow there are several characteristics associated with people who have gained self-actualisation. One of these is awareness meaning that these people are very much aware of the meaningfulness of life and that due to this they are usually constantly enjoying life. The other characteristic is that they are reality centered and this means that they are usually concerned with issues in their environment. Acceptance is the other characteristic and it means that these people accept their environment as well as what cannot be changed. Lastly these people exhibit a sense of humor that is not hostile meaning that they do not joke about others as they consider this offensive (Engler, 2008). All the above theories in one way or another attempt to give an explanation of human behavior. They all acknowledge that personality characteristics affect the way people behave in different situations. It is the differences in personalities that make people to react differently to the same situation. Each theory has a number of personality characteristics which are attributed to them and these determines how individuals interact with others so that some people tend to get along well with people while others do not. References Boeree, G. (2009). Trait theories of personality. Retrieved 1 May, 2010 from http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/genpsytraits. html Engler, B. (2008). Personality theories (8th ed. ). USA: Cengage Learning. Ewen, R. B. (1998). Personality, a topical approach: Theories, research, major controversies and emerging findings. New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Ewen, R. B. (2003). An introduction to theories of personality. New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Mitterer, J. O. Coon, D. (2008). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior (12th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Nicholas, L. (2008). Introduction to psychology (2nd ed. ). Cape Town: UCT Press. Oliver, P. J. , Robins, R. W. , Pervin, L. A. (2008). Handbook of personality: Theory and research. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and variations (8th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Hoop Dreams And Rasin In The Sun - Comparison Contrast Paper

The movie Hoop Dreams shows you the difficulties and obstacles that come in the way of dreams. Although it’s said that if you believe in a dream long enough it will come true, but in Hoop Dreams and A Raisin in the Sun you are shown the harsh realities of the falseness of that statement. And that the reality of a dream not coming true hits you like a brick wall. Many obstacles get in the way of the road to dreams in both stories. In both stories, all families suffer from having little knowledge, and it doesn’t help that they’re all black. Also being poor and living in the ghetto makes things that much harder. Pregnancies also put big bumps in the road to success, in both instances it makes the families come together and try their hardest to make it through. However, there are also many different obstacles that come in the way for each family. In Hoop Dreams, both William and Arthur are given much support to fulfill their dreams of getting to the NBA, but Walter in A Raisin in the Sun is only given grief on getting his liquor store. This can point the young immature teens to giving them more hope that a very rare dream will come true. Also, the two ballplayers do have talent to help them start down the road to success, but that can be very misleading, all Walter has is the nagging of his buddies Bobo and Willy. The toughest of t he obstacles to overcome was when William injured his knee and it affected his basketball career for a long time. He never really did get over it, he...

Mandatory Testing Needed for Elderly Drivers Essay

In July of 2003, an eighty-four year old man drove through a crowded farmer’s market in Santa Monica, California, killing ten people, including a seven-month old and a three-year old. He also injured around forty others. According to many news reports, the driver apparently panicked and hit the gas instead of the brake, speeding through the crowded street. This mistake is common among elderly drivers who no longer possess the necessary skills to safely operate a vehicle. Either their vision has become poor, they are no longer able to react quickly, or their cognitive abilities have begun to deteriorate. Some older drivers do not realize they are becoming unsafe on the road, while others simply do not want to give up their keys. Still others are perfectly capable of driving safely well into their eighties or even nineties. Because of the variation in driving abilities and the high incidence of fatal accidents among older drivers, states need to ensure the safety of our streets and highways by passing laws requiring motorists over the age of seventy to pass frequent road and vision tests. Although many people agree that elderly drivers are a high-risk age group, some critics of mandatory testing call it a form of age discrimination. This statement, however, is entirely untrue. Mandatory testing and frequent license renewal are not products of age discrimination, but rather precautionary measures to ensure the safety of both the driver and all others on the road, much like the laws governing teenage drivers. Teen drivers cause more fatal accidents than any other age group; therefore, states have legislation specific to that group of drivers. Those laws, though age specific, are not criticized as discrimination, and laws geared toward senior drivers should not be considered discriminatory either. Elderly drivers are right behind teens in the number of fatal crashes they cause, and statistics show that per licensed driver, the rate of fatal crashes rises sharply at age seventy. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in 2001, elderly drivers made up just over ten percent of the driving population, yet accounted for thirteen percent of all fatal accidents. Also, about half of fatal accidents involving older drivers occurred at intersections, and seventy-three percent involved another vehicle. These facts show that many elderly drivers put both themselves and others at risk by driving when they are no longer able to do so safely. If frequent mandatory testing were required, unsafe elderly drivers would no longer be licensed to be on the road. It is the responsibility of each state to take measures to decrease the number of fatal accidents caused by high-risk groups, and mandatory testing is just such a measure. Many states focus heavily on teenage drivers, raising the minimum driving age or instituting graduated license systems, but statistics show that equal attention needs to be given to elderly drivers. Some states have already instituted frequent renewals and/or mandatory vision and driving tests. In Iowa and Rhode Island, for instance, drivers age seventy and older are required to renew their licenses every two years, as opposed to the five years for all other drivers. In Illinois, drivers over seventy-five have to take a road test at each renewal. In Maine, drivers over the age of sixty-two have to pass a vision test at each renewal, and drivers over sixty-five are required to renew more often. By addressing not only the high-risk teen drivers, but also the high-risk elderly drivers, these states are providing others with an example of what steps can be taken to make our nation’s roads safer. Granted, frequent license renewals and optometry visits can be costly and timeconsuming. But, these problems can be easily addressed. One way to counteract the costs -seniors would incur would be to discount the rate of senior licenses and to have an -optometrist onsite to provide qui ck vision screenings. That way, seniors are not paying more for their license than any other driver, and they do not have to pay for an optometry visit each time they renew. They would still have to receive comprehensive optometric exams on their own time, but not at the requirement of the licensing office. Also, in addition to hiring an optometrist, license offices can make minor adjustments to their normal operations to help -cut back on the wait-time for seniors. For example, there could be a senior day on which all -drivers over age seventy automatically get to go to the front of the line. Another issue that elderly drivers could face if mandatory testing laws were enacted would be finding adequate transportation after they no longer have a valid license. Like the above issues, this problem can be easily addressed. City buses and taxi companies can offer significant discounts for senior citizens. Also, cities can add more bus routes and bus stops, making sure seniors have easy access to public transportation. Local governments or nonprofit organizations can initiate community service programs in which licensed drivers with good driving records volunteer to drive senior citizens to and from work, medical visits, the grocery store, or any other location they may need to visit. Families can also pitch in to see that their parents or grandparents are still able to get around after they are no longer licensed to drive. Drivers should be licensed for as long as they are safe and able, but states must strive to make sure that only safe and able drivers are on the road. It is sometimes hard to identify who is and who isn’t safe, which is why road and vision tests are used. High-risk groups need special laws, and this includes elderly drivers. I know as well as everybody else that there are many seniors who are great drivers, just as there are teens who are great drivers, but there are also many in each of these age groups who are not. States need to make sure that only the capable drivers in high-risk age groups are on the road. In most states, strict laws are already in place for teenagers, but not for elderly drivers. Now is the time for every state to institute mandatory road and vision tests for drivers over age seventy, before any more unnecessary accidents happen.

History of Africa

The Birthplace of humanity All people are most likely to be descendents of beings who lived in Africa millions of years ago. Fossils and genetic evidence suggest that both humans and the forest dwelling great apes descended from a common ape like ancestor who lived in Africa 5 to ten million years ago. The earliest known hominids to which humans belong were the australopithecines, which emerged about four million years ago. Recently scientists have found Homo habilis fossils in the Caucasus region of southern Europe. A more advanced human, Homo erectus, spread even farther from Africa. According to a multiregional model, model human evolved throughout Africa. Africa provides a comprehensive and contiguous time line of human development going back at least 7 million years. Africa gave humanity the use of fire a million and half to two million years ago. It is the home of the first tools, astronomy, jewelry, fishing, mathematics, crops, art, use of pigments, cutting and other pointed instruments and animal domestication. In short Africa gave the world human civilization. This is 1st importance to me because you must know where you originated from before anything else. It is important to understand that African Americans were all born in Africa before they were forced to move from their homeland. The slave trade in Africa While some slaves shipped to Europe and America had previously been African slaves, many enslaved had been innocent bystanders. It was not uncommon for the Europeans to hide and wait for an African to come along, and then kidnap him. The retrieval of slaves was also obtained through Africans convicted of a crime. It was also likely for Africans of a tribe to be captured by an enemy tribe as a prisoner of war and then exchanged for goods. This lasted from the 15th to the 19th century, devastating the lives of at least ten to twenty million Africans. All forced into foreign enslavement, exported in exchange for imported goods. This is known as the slave trade. During their voyage slaves were governed by a system of fear, torture, and brutalization. This type of system was enforced by the crew in order to contain the slaves who were desperate, afraid, and would usurp any opportunity to regain their freedom by overthrowing the crew in order to obtain control of the ship. In Africa, before they were forced aboard the slavers, once they were captured, the slaves were tied together to prevent escape. After the right amounts of slaves were kidnapped, they would then be taken to slave factories in which their state and quality of health would be examined. The measure of their strength and well-being analyzed. If the slave happened to fail this examination, he would be set free and would not have to endure the horror aboard the slavers. The horror of hundreds upon hundreds of slaves packed tightly together. The torridness of the climate enclosed within a hold in which one slave crowded upon another could barely move resulting in an unyielding amount of perspiration amongst the slaves. The air becoming unsuitable, for breathing, from a number of abhorrent odors, causing the death of many. The slave trade is the 2nd most important because here we learned how the Africans were captured from their homeland and forced to become slaves. The Middle Passage The first slave ship was built in Massachusetts, 1637. In which the ships, also known as slavers, would sail from America to West Africa in exchange for goods. The Europeans also took a great part in the transportation of African slaves across the Atlantic and once the adequate number of slaves were acquired aboard a slaver they would set out for sail anywhere from five weeks to three months, heading back to America or Europe where many slaves would be sold at a slave auction to the highest bidder. This process is recognized as the Middle Passage. Slaves had to endure many injustices, such as; suffocation, brutalization, fear, rape, and hopelessness among others. There was also disease: smallpox, scurvy, dysentery, and more. These diseases often spreading from slaves to the crew, killing a myriad of people. Along this journey many slaves found themselves in a state of fixed-melancholy. As they saw there was no longer a reason to live. At this point some slaves would jump off the ship and remain under water, until they killed themselves. Others would starve themselves to death. This causing the captain to resort to drastic measures, for fear of losing his valuable cargo. The slaves who chose to starve themselves would be force-fed or tortured, if not both. Africans would often be forced to eat with what is called a speculum orum, a device which held the mouth open. They could not even escape enslavement through death. The Africans that remained healthy were put on display at public auctions and examined in a ridiculous and humiliating manner. A buyer might lick the African's chin to determine the ge of the slave, or taste his sweat to decipher if he was healthy. Once they were purchased, who was to say they would receive a kind owner. If Americans and Europeans had used such a harsh manner to obtain slaves, it was probably nearly impossible for slaves to believe that once they were in America or Europe that there would be an improvement. The Middle passage to me is the 3rd important because we learned how Africans were treated and their living conditions du ring the transportation to be sold as slaves. Plantation Slavery Seasoning When African Slaves reached the Americas, the slave ship crews prepared them for sale by washing, shaving all their body hair, and rubbing them with palm oil to disguise sores and wounds caused by conditions on board. They were trained not to resist having all parts of their bodies examined—especially their reproductive organs, and sometimes were allotted a little rum to liven their spirits. The Slaves’ New World â€Å"Ordeal†Ã¢â‚¬â€called Seasoning—was for the purpose of increasing their sale price. Once Slaves had gone through the Seasoning process this meant that, among other things, they had survived the first attack of New World diseases and were molded into productive Slaves by means of having been hardened to a strange climate; to the immunities of diseases, and to the indescribable severity of toil as plantation Slaves. Seasoning was similar to a prolonged and inhumane way of â€Å"breaking† horses. The Seasoning process began on the auction block—a terribly frightening process. Once sold, despite having been branded with the traders mark in Africa, the new owner branded them with his mark. Then the Slaves were taken to the worse of locations as, for example, to plantations at rivers’ edges where there were swarms of mosquitoes, parasites, and other new environmental challenges. Seasoning consisted of brutal methods of physical and psychological conditioning—so brutal, in fact, that 7% to 50% of the Slaves are estimated to have died within their one to seven years of the Seasoning period. Actually, the average life expectancy for an imported Slave was only seven years. Many died in the first few weeks or months from dysentery, malnutrition, several types of worm infections, change of diet and climate, and the White man’s diseases. One reason is that the Slaves were terribly weakened by the trauma of the Middle Passage voyage and the addition of exposure to diseases, inadequate nutrition, bad water, work exhaustion from being unaccustomed to the â€Å"sunrise-to-sunset gang labor,† and cruelty were simply overwhelming. Immediately, new owners and their overseers obliterated the identities of their newly acquired Slaves by breaking their wills and by severing any bonds with their African past. Such occurred while the Slaves were being forced to adapt to new and horrendous working and living conditions; to learn a new language; and to adopt new customs. The 4th important aspects of slavery I believe was â€Å"seasoning† where Africans were brainwashed to forgetting where they came from Africans were forced to except the new life that was ahead of them. As seen in â€Å"Roots†) Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is a famous document for many reasons. It declared the colonies independence from Great Britain. It stated basic rights and liberties for Americans. The French used the ideals behind the Declaration as a model for their own revolution in 1789. As time went by, the ideals behind â€Å"all men are created equal† grew in importance. Northern states us ed them to free slaves in their states. Abraham Lincoln used equal rights to justify the war against slavery. In 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. tood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C†¦ In his famous speech he repeated the ideals of the Declaration â€Å"that all men are created equal. † The Declaration failed to address slaves. While it was the culture of the time for men (and ONLY men) to be involved in politics, slavery was a different issue. Jefferson and the founding fathers left slavery out because they knew they needed the support of the South. While the North didn't really care (at this point, they were not morally against it, but not for it either) Southern life was based on the institution of slavery. So to avoid the drama of slavery (which we saw what happened in 1861) they left out slavery. It's not right, but it allowed all 13 colonies to support the Declaration, and this was tremendously important because the colonies needed to put up a united front against Britain. Last but not least was the declaration of Independence that created every man equal this was the trick that most African Americans fell for they thought that this applied to them but it didn’t because African Americans were not considered equal to whites so they remained slaves. History of Africa By the end of the course/unit the learner should be able to: I) Explain why Africa is the cradle of humankind. II) Describe the origin and development of Agriculture, mining and manufacturing. Ill) Discuss rise and fall of early civilizations of Egypt, More and Exam. V) Describe the emergence and spread of Bantu, Clutches and Entities v) Explain the growth of local and regional trade. V') Discuss the economic contacts with the outside world vii) Discuss the coming and impact of Islam and Christianity in Africa viii) Discuss decentralized and centralized states in Africa. Content I) Early Man in Africa. ) The origin and development of Agriculture Where it originated from How it spread to Africa Theories of diffusion, evolution, innovation Importance of Agricultural Revolution In Africa â€Å"l) Orally and development of Iron Technology The theories and myths that surround origin and spread of Iron technology. Effects of Iron Technology on Africa v) The rise and fall of early civiliza tions of Egypt, More and Exam v) Emergence and spread of Bantu, Cushiest and Milestones VI) Growth of Local and regional trade vii) Economic contacts with the outside world Slave Trade in West Africa Abolitionist processConsequences of Slave Trade The coming of Islam and Christianity In Africa x) Development of political systems: Decentralized and centralized states Course Evaluation Course evaluation will be in two parts: continuous assessment and the final assignment constituting 30 marks. The final examination will account for 70% of the total marks. As part of the learning process, a lot of seriousness is attached to class attendance and contribution. REFERENCES Crystal D. (1981). The Ancient Egyptians. London: E. Arnold. Davidson Basil (1973).The Growth of African Civilization: East and Central Africa in the Late 19th Century. London: Longing. Gaff Hoses (1985). A History of Africa. London: Zed Books. July Robert W. (1992). A History of the Ancient People. Nairobi: East Educati onal Publishers. Matthias A. Gut and Simon Kinkajou (1991). An Introduction to African African History. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press. General History of Africa II: Ancient Mozart G. (1990). Civilization of Africa. London: Heinlein Kenya. Got B. A. (deed. ). (1992). General History of Africa V: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. Oxford: Henchman.Indies C. (1990). Themes in World History: Book 1. Nairobi: Longing Kenya. Potts M. J. (1971). Makers of Civilization: Book 1. London: Rodney W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dark-SE- Tanzania Publishing House. 1. 0 The Origin of Man in Africa Africa is the cradle of humankind salaam: The question of the origin of humans is pertinent not only in Africa but in the world all over. It is therefore important to answer this question before analyzing the history of Africa. Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an Englishman, made a scientific trip in 1831 to South America and the Pacific Islands.In this expedition, he spent time to study rocks and other geographical features. Consequently, he published his theories on evolution in 1859 in a book entitled: The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Darning's theory states that all living things evolved over millions of years from simple living cells to complex plants and animals. Scientific evidence supports Darning's theory which states that man was originally a primate but gradually evolved over years from his ape-like ancestors. Archaeological evidence in particular, points to Africa as being the possible cradle of humankind.Many archaeological sites have been discovered in Africa. This confirms that early hominids were living in the area even before the earth movements that led to the formation of the Rift Valley. Dust and lava covered places where man lived. The location of these remains formed major archaeological sites in EAI. Some of the important archaeological sites in Africa include Rushing Island, Fort Tehran near Jericho, Ukraini ans, Gambles Cave, Largesse, Harry Hills near Nassau, Negro River Caves and Kankakee. The oldest remains found in Kenya were those of thyrotrophic Africans.These were discovered at Rushing Island in L. Victoria. The creature was named Proconsul and looked like a chimpanzee; had long teeth and had a smooth forehead. In 1961, the remains of Snappishness were discovered at Fort Tehran near Jericho by Dry. Louis Leaky and his wife Mary. The fossil remains were dated between 15-12 million years old. Other similar remains have since been found at Samba's Hills, Lake Barring and Lake Turban Basins. Snappishness is believed to have been closer to man in several aspects.He had 32 teeth and his canines were smaller than earlier hominids. He had a brain size of ICC, massive Jaws, weighed between 18-keg and occasionally on two legs. Other important remains found in Africa are those of Astrophysicists / Conjurations [Southern Ape which lived between 1 – 7 million years ago. The remains we re found at L. Turban in 1969 after having been discovered earlier tatting in Botswana in 1924 and Latvia Gorge in 1959. Astrophysicists walked on two legs; was hairy, short and strong about 1. Meters, had low forehead and deep- set eyes, had brain capacity of 450-ICC, had sharp vision, had massive Jaws with large molars and smaller canines and made and used tools referred to as Lowdown tools. Recent findings near Jenny's Marionette River near Lake Turban and Lordliest near L. Magic indicate that hominids such as Homo habits (1. 8 and . 5 million years ago) and Homo erects (1. 8 million to 350 000 years ago) are possible direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens, and lived in Kenya in the Pre- Neolithic epoch.During excavations at Lake Turban in 1984, paleontologist's Richard Leaky assisted by Kamala Kim discovered the Turban boy, a 1. 6-million- year-old fossil belonging to Homo erects. Homo erects means the upright man and was believed to have a bigger brain (775-check) than homo ha bits (500-ICC). They had a more advanced speech, about Ft tall, had discovered and used fire, were omnivorous and made more advanced tools called Caecilian tools. Remains of Homo sapiens which mean thinking or intelligent man have been found near L.Turban, Kankakee and L. Victoria. He about Ft tall, brain capacity of 1000-check, small teeth with a steep and well-rounded forehead, was a fisherman, religious and made refined tools called microfilms. This overwhelming evidence goes a long way to prove that Africa was inhabited by early man. It should also be noted that more evidence concerning early man continues to be unearthed with time. 2. 0 The origin and development of Agriculture and Agricultural Revolution 2. 1 Introduction Agriculture is the cultivation of crops and taming of animals.Knowing how to cultivate food and tame animals seems to have been a long history of human cultural adaptation of probably trial and error which finally made man to control his environment. Agricult ural revolution on the other hand was the change from dependence on hunting and gathering of eatable fruits and roots as well as fishing to domestication of animals and cultivation of food. The development of Agriculture initiated one of the most important revolutions in human history. It led to major changes in man's relationship with his environment and in his social, economic and lattice organization and behavior. . 2 Theories of Origin and development of Agriculture For a long time, Resurrection scholars recounted the origins of Agriculture from a whose claim is that Africa had no single site where agriculture originated but Africans got the knowledge through interaction with the so called Hammiest of the Near East, in Mesopotamia to be precise. It was through such interaction that the knowledge came to Egypt through the Nile Valley, and then it spread to the rest of Africa. This Diffusion Theory seems to be true because some products seem not to have been domesticated in Africa .For example, we are certain and sure of chicken. Also it is certain that cattle, south of the Sahara, came from outside; either from Libya, North Africa or Asia Minor. Archaeological evidence and their radio-carbon dates have also unequivocally established an early start of cereal farming in the Middle East. At the same time, the advantages of farming in supporting complex civilizations argued that the seemingly less efficient hunter-gatherer societies were quicker to take advantage of a more efficient food producing economy than more efficient hunter-gatherer societies.It appeared; therefore that Agriculture had been invented during a short interval at a single point from which it spread quickly and widely across the world. Increasingly, this concept of rapid revolutionary change has come into question. To begin with, there were many crops and agricultural methods that clearly did not have a Middle-East origin. In Africa hoe and digging-stick cultivation has always predominated wh ile the use of mounds and ridges remains characteristic of wetter regions. Many African crops have also been identified.For example, the cereal Theft and the banana like Onset in Ethiopia or the West African millet known as Font. Conceivably, the methods of cultivation of sorghum and millet might have spread from the Middle East via Egypt, but this hardly takes into account the techniques for growing rice or yams, both indigenous of the regions below the Sahara, both raised by methods far removed from those of the Middle East. Due to inadequate evidence to support the above contention and new discoveries that some products were indigenous to Africa while others were not, watered down the Diffusion Theory.Since the end of World War 2, much light has been thrown on the origin of Agriculture in various parts of the world including North and South America, South East Asia and also the African contributions in the history of Agriculture. Advocates of this new revelation are referred to a s Evolutionist theorists or Independent Developed Theorists. According to Evolutionist or Independent Developed Theory, agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world particularly along river valleys. Independent developed theorists have suggested various centers which they belief were the cradle of Agriculture.There are probably 4 centers of early plant and animal domestication. Such centers yielded different varieties of plants and animals. It is important to examine such areas and he factors that make such scholars to observe that they are original places for the origin of Agriculture. The Near East The area is hypothesized by a wide range of archaeologists and botanists as the centre of some domesticated animals and plants. These areas cover South West Iran, parts of Iraq, Turkey and around rivers Tigris and Euphrates. They are believed to be homeland of wheat, barley, sheep, pigs and cattle.This centre is generally considered to be the oldest centre of agri cultural development in the world; it occurred as early as 9000 SC. South East Stats argued that the area allowed for the invention of agriculture because it had favorable conditions such as plenty of water mass that allowed populations to do fishing which in turn allowed them time to invent domestication and cultivation. Domesticated animals such as pigs, fowls, geese and duck are argued to have been the first wild animals to be domesticated. The author also argues that this was the first area to domesticate yams and taro (a starchy root plant).He further argues that yams found their way into Africa through East African coastal trade while crops like bananas came in from here and were taken to Began and later to the West African regions. The New World This centre lies between Mexico and Peru and here the American Indian population developed maize and potatoes. Africa The scholar who first proposed this region was a Russian agronomist, N. L. Pavlov. Various regions of Africa have be en proposed in this argument. 1. West Africa The most important plant remains discovered here were those of yams and palm oil.In this region a different type of yam called Discover yam and which was widespread in the region had no counterpart in any other part of the world. Hence scholars have concluded that West African region is the cradle of Discover yam. Also here is West African millet known as font which is not found anywhere else in the world. 2. Mauritania In this centre, there was found a special type of millet which has never been found in any other part of the world like the Discover yam in West Africa. Scholars have also concluded that such a variety of millet was first domesticated in this area. . Ethiopia In this centre, there was found a cereal Theft and the banana like Onset in Ethiopia which were different from other types found in other areas. Also Voile carried out his research from 1952 to 1965 and concluded that Ethiopia seem to have been the anomaly of sorghum, wheat, barley and coffee. His conclusions have been challenged by scholars like Elizabeth Scheming and Philips D. W. Who have argued against Ethiopia being the cradle of these crops. They insist that the conditions in Ethiopia are not favorable for plants like Barley and wheat. 2. Spread of Agriculture in Africa Most scholars maintain that there are three main phases of agricultural spread in Africa. In the First Phase they argue cereal agriculture was developed in the Lower Nile Valley and the Fumy Depression. The diffusion from the Near East (about 5000 o BBC) of wheat and barley eventually resulted in Africans population explosion. Probably less than 20, 000 hunters and gatherers could have occupied the Lower Nile area before the introduction of Agriculture; but about BBC the labor force for pyramid building alone exceeded 100, 000.Today Egypt is still one of the densely populated areas in the world. Population growth was accompanied by widespread arbitration and the development of more elaborate forms of social, economic and political organization. Populations spread slowly through Africa, north and south of the Sahara and up to the Nile Valley as far south as modern Khartoum. It is generally understood that the Sahara was capable of supporting both Agriculture and pastoralist until approximately BBC, the time that the desert conditions had become firmly established.Some feel that interactions between Negroes populations innovations flowing in both directions. The Second Phase advocates that agriculture was developed in the Satanic Belt (from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ethiopians Highlands). This important agricultural knowledge is generally felt to have come from Egypt, although the implementation of these ideas depended upon the domestication f suitable drought resistant cereals of the Savannah like sorghum, millet and rice. These developments resulted in a second but much slower build-up population in black Africa.Much of this development was confined t o the Satanic Belt hemmed in on the north by the progressively drying Sahara and on the south by the equatorial forests where Savannah crops were unsuitable. The Nile swamps probably prevented direct spread to the East African grasslands but some crops began to appear after 1000 BC in various locations from present day Kenya south to Zambia and southern Angola. This was most likely the result of the spread of Ethiopians forms of millet and sorghum. These pockets of agricultural settlements were to play an important role in Bantu migrations.The more humid regions of Africa (Congo Basin, Guiana Coast, Great Lakes Region and parts of the Zambia Valley) were to remain mainly hunting and gathering areas, with perhaps some form of cultivation based on yams and palm oil until the beginning of the Christian era. Compared to the other African Savannah, there has been generally lack of indigenous food plants in the African Rain Forests. The settlements of the rain forests over the past 2000 y ears had therefore depended to a greater extent on the introduction of food crops from outside.The third phase was the Bantu migrations and spread of Agriculture to the humid areas of Africa. This was very significant because it led to the present spread of distribution of population in Africa. This spread of Agriculture to the more humid regions has been linked to a combination of three factors, namely: introduction of South East Asian crops in Africa, the growth of iron technology and the migration of the Bantu speaking peoples who occupy nearly all of Africa south of the Equator. 4 The Impact of Agricultural Revolution The revolution was one of the most significant steps in human history for it changed man's life tremendously. As some people became pastoralist, looking after sheep, goats, cattle and camels, the majority took up mixed farming with wide range of social, economic and political implications. To begin with, rearing animals and cultivation of crops freed man from relia nce on the environment as adequate food was produced usually with surplus to be stored.Secondly, scientific knowledge increased. As knowledge on domestication increased, hybrid plants and livestock ere developed. In many cases entirely new crops were developed from the wild species. Thirdly, methods of cultivation were improved. In the beginning, digging sticks were used but later ploughs were devised. Inadequate rainfall did not seriously affect production, especially in areas near permanent water courses since irrigation was practiced. Fourthly, high food supplies freed many people from farming to other activities.There was division of labor as other members of society worked in pottery; basketry; black-smiths and other related crafts as well as other professions like medicine and administration. Fifthly, forests were destroyed as more land was brought under cultivation. Sixthly, trade developed as people exchanged life since cultivation required patience before planted crops were harvested. Since unnecessary migrations and movements were minimized and diets improved, it was now possible to localize the supply of food. Another social impact was population explosion.The increase in population which was as a result of improved food security and health. This in turn led to population movements from their earlier settled areas. Furthermore, there was development of religion. Man perceived that there were there forces that determined the yields from the farm such as the sun and rain and started worshipping such phenomena. In the political sphere, government was developed as the population grew so as to have effective control of the increased population and avoid serious problems.Laws were thus instituted and enacted and self appointed or acclaimed rulers enforced them. Eventually kingdoms and empires with defined spheres of influence were established. 2. 5 Conclusion It was the Agricultural revolution and use of Iron technology that made the early settlers in Afr ica to master their environment and prompted successful migration to ewe and unknown lands. In any case, the history of agricultural revolution and Iron technology generally referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, show that Africa had its own development and was not isolated from the rest of the world.Africa was not a dark continent. 3. 0 Origin and Development of Iron Technology 3. 1 Introduction When dealing with the introduction of Iron technology and agriculture, we always come across the term ‘Neolithic' which is used in two versions to fit our purposes. First, it means the technological advance whereby the experts try to reconstruct how pottery, stone and metals, especially iron were made. Secondly, its meaning turns out to be economic and here experts try to reconstruct the agricultural aspects of human life entailing rearing of animals and cultivation of crops.In brief, ‘Neolithic Revolution' deals with technological and agricultural developments which are two d istinct aspects of human life. This topic focuses on the history of Iron technology in Africa. Although technology in Africa started with the science of making stone tools which went through various phases through space and time, our topic will harp on metallurgy and iron technology to be specific for the major fact that it was the one hat considerably altered human life to a degree unknown before.This Archaeological evidence abounds to suggest that Africans from about 1st C AD worked on various metals and also exploited various minerals to meet their needs. It is important to note that Africa is one of the richest continents in the world in terms of mineral resources. Of these minerals, the ones mined in the earliest times are iron, copper, tin, gold and salt. In this topic we will examine the origin and development of Iron and other metals like copper. 3. 2 Iron Technology There once existed a widespread belief that iron technology diffused into Africa from outside Africa.More spe cifically it was believed that the Turks of Anatolia were the first iron users as early as 2000 BC. The information available reveals that the making of iron tools was secret to the Turks and it remained their monopoly. For reasons unknown by historians, this knowledge of iron working leaked to the Hitters (Syria) of the Middle East, probably about 1500 BC. From this region it landed into Africa, through Egypt. The Hitters are said to have moved with the technology to Egypt down the Nile Valley up to More.Another school of thought states the Cushiest More got he knowledge from the Hitters after conquering them. Whichever the case, More became the most important transmission centre of iron technology first to Exam, then to other regions in East and Central Africa. More Kingdom thrived between BBC to BBC. Records have it that the people of More had made iron working their art and occupation. A. H. Sauce, the archaeologist who was associated with the discovery of More in 1911, said tha t More produced quantities of iron and that place came to be nicknamed ‘The Birmingham of Africa. About BBC, this knowledge is claimed to have diffused to ‘Nook in Central Nigeria. Out of that, other archaeologists have linked Bantu knowledge about iron technology with Nook. Another related argument on the spread of iron technology stated that West Africa may also have received its iron technology from Cartage through the Sahara or the Atlantic coastal region. Then it is argued that the Bantu speaking people migrated with the technology to Central and Southern Africa. Azalea (1993:174), in A Modern Economic History of Africa Volvo. Dismisses the explanation of the diffusion trail since it was constructed on thin evidence and speculation. The diffusion explanation was guided y the racist notion that Africa or more precisely the part that Europeans call Black Africa was too primitive for independent technological innovation and development. Indeed as some research by archa eologists and historians has shown, iron technology was invented independently in Africa. Other scholars however still argue that iron technology and metallurgy in general were introduced in Africa from external sources.Yet this latter group ignores the fact that technology is not an immutable idea to be conceived, bred and transmitted whole from the outside world to Africa without the Africans also injecting their own value to it. Certainly, technology is a continuous process of innovation and change spawned by complex interaction between iron production techniques and economic, cultural, social, political and environmental transformations. The belief that Egyptians were introduced to the use of iron by the Assyrian or the Greeks has been challenged.More and Exam have been dethroned as centers of the diffusion to the rest of Africa. Available data for the beginning of smelting from several centers in West, Central and East Africa show that the knowledge of iron working was known in these centers between the contemporary with or even earlier than More. For example, in the West Africa region iron working sites have yielded earlier dates in several centers. Evidence for this has been obtained from rock art painting, Arabic sources and from iron implements discovered from excavated sites.Evidence from Joss plateau in Northern Nigeria, which has been categorized as the â€Å"Nook culture† has shown that iron was in regular use by at least the third century BC. Here various types of terracotta have been found. Other early evidence of iron working in West Africa region have been found at Trauma and Born in Nigeria, Do Dimmit in Niger, Dobra in Ghana and Assonance Valley in Senegal. In the East Africa region, the centers include Startup in Tanzania. There was also iron working evidence in the Congo basin and at Machine in Zambia areas of Central Africa.South Africa evidence indicates that iron working was practiced around the 3rd 0 4th century AD. In excavatio n at some of the working at Determination indicated regular iron operations. One of the vexing issues concerning the spread of iron technology in Africa has been its relation to the migration of the Bantu. The argument has been that the Bantu people have been responsible for the spread of this technology from their West Africa homeland to other regions of Eastern and southern Africa.Their movement has been traced by archaeologists through a special type of pottery which is dimple based and (Urea ware) which is associated with the Bantu. However as Azalea (Ibid) argues, there was no direct correlation between the dispersal of Bantu languages and Iron Age technology. Azalea and indeed other historians, archaeologists and linguists have demonstrated that Iron Age culture in East Africa communities preceded those communities closer to the Bantu homeland. Linguistic studies have not shown that stems relating to metallurgy in the various Bantu languages are not all derived from a common p roto-Bantu, nor are they different from those in non Bantu language. Probably, the expansion of the Bantu speakers from their homeland in south-eastern Nigeria started much earlier than once thought, some 2000-arrears B. C. Before the advent of iron working in West, Central or East Africa. Therefore the earliest Bantu speakers in these areas did not produce iron. Azalea's argument however does not water down the fact that the Bantu were responsible for the spread of Iron technology. Instead of arguing to water down this fact she evades it and start pointing out that there were pockets of iron smelting in different parts of Africa.Just as there is a big difference in manufacturing a good and marketing it, there is also a very big difference between inventing technology and spreading it and that was what Azalea had forgotten in her argument. This loophole was filled by historians Oliver Roland and linguists like Malcolm Guthrie and Joseph Greenberg who suggested and showed iron techno logy led to the migration of the Bantu who spread southwards and were able to conquer the Czarina Forest and defeat the original inhabitants they passed through and settled.Using the TTS-TTS-free corridors, iron workers and agriculturalists reached Zambia ND southwards towards Tanganyika from either north or north-west with their cattle Gradually, iron age communities pushed southwards in small groups reaching the Zambia by the early centuries of the Christian era, settling in Mishandled in the 4th C and crossing the Limp some time later. However archaeologists say that Stone Age hunter-gatherers lived peacefully with the iron technology farmers until made many of the later to abandon their natural way of life and turn on food production.By early 19th century most African peoples were able to produce their own iron or obtain it from neighboring communities through trade. Iron production was a complex, skill, lengthy and labor intensive process. It involved prospecting, mining, smelt ing and forging. Iron ore was available in virtually all part of the continent. Iron ore deposits were found by means of outcrops and were extracted through either alluvial or shallow mining. Smelting was done in furnaces using charcoal fuel, after which the iron was forged in workshops.Many products were made including tools, utensils and Jewelry. The most important tools manufactured were hoes, sickles, razors, knives, daggers, rings, wire and weapons such as spear, assesses, arrow-heads and battle axes. The position of iron producers varied among many Africa societies. In some they were respected while in others they were despised. By early 19th C Africa was sufficient in iron needs. But toward the end of the century, imports had become dominant in some part of the continent. Three explanation account for this: 1 .African iron industries declined because of competition from Europeans products. 2. There were ecological factors that hampered iron production. For example charcoal sh ortage caused by deforestation affected their production. 3. The role of labor organization and distribution affected the production. Whereas production was increasingly becoming more costly. Europeans imports, though of low quality and often less relevant for local uses were much cheaper, substituting of local with imported therefore became the order of the day. 3. The Impact of Iron Technology on African Societies It led to the development of agriculture as a result of better iron tools. For instance agriculture was practiced in most areas of Sub-Sahara Africa especially after the introduction of iron tools and implements. It led to sedentary life. Iron tools and equipments which allowed the clearance of wooded areas of Africa made most societies to settle down. Therefore the phase of nomadic way of life was replaced with sedentary life characterized by villages and even larger social units.Although it is difficult to ascertain the social structures involved, it is likely that ove r most of Africa, there existed relatively small villages consisting of one or more lineage groups with wider affinities based on clan relationship. Trade flourished. Regional and international trade developed as people exchanged metal items like iron tools with other items. Trade transformed most African economies from ones which were largely parasitic on the immediate environment to ones which were in control food reduction and exchange through trade.It is also important to note that trade took another dimension with the advent of metals. Copper and gold were in demand by various communities in the South, North, East and West. There is evidence that suggest that trade was more expanded and various trading networks were developed. Arab evidence has alluded to the existence of trade in metals across the Sahara from the earliest times. Constructions and building works emerged. Metals were used to construct bridges and reinforcement of buildings like pyramids, temples and houses. With the advent of metallurgy, especially iron technology,

Free Essays on Andrew Jacksons Presidency(1990 DBQ)

In the 1820's and 1830's, President Andrew Jackson and the Jacksonian Democrats brought forth the idea that they were guardians of the Constitution and many aspects of the U.S. government. The Democrats had tried to protect what the thought was the right way to guard the Constitution, political democracy, individual liberty, and an equality of economic opportunity. But in the world of democracy, everyone has a different view. Some people supported Jackson’s efforts to preserve their views and beliefs, and other did not. President Jackson and the Jacksonian Democrats proved that they wanted to be guardians of the government, but in reality, showed short in key areas. President Jackson did not uphold the Constitution very well. He went against what the Supreme Court said was unconstitutional and force the Cherokee Nation out of their homeland(Doc g). Going against what the Supreme Court gave a message that President Jackson was prepared to do what he wanted to do, whether it was proven wrong or not. President Jackson also vetoed the U.S. Bank charter which was deemed constitutional in the McCulloch v. Maryland hearing of 1819. President Jackson thought that the bank was a monopoly and thought that the shareholders of the bank used the bank the benefit themselves instead of the nation. This decision angered many people, and in Daniel Webster’s reply to President Jackson’s veto(Doc. C), Webster states â€Å"It manifestly seeks to inflame the poor against the rich; it wantonly attacks whole classes of people, for the purpose of turning against them the prejudices and the resentment of other classes.† Webster thought that Jackson’s veto was a way to get the economic classes to clash together. He blames Jackson that he is trying to separate the country. Webster also states that the veto â€Å"extends the grasp of executive pretension over every power of the government.†, implying that Jackson thinks that he can ove... Free Essays on Andrew Jackson's Presidency(1990 DBQ) Free Essays on Andrew Jackson's Presidency(1990 DBQ) In the 1820's and 1830's, President Andrew Jackson and the Jacksonian Democrats brought forth the idea that they were guardians of the Constitution and many aspects of the U.S. government. The Democrats had tried to protect what the thought was the right way to guard the Constitution, political democracy, individual liberty, and an equality of economic opportunity. But in the world of democracy, everyone has a different view. Some people supported Jackson’s efforts to preserve their views and beliefs, and other did not. President Jackson and the Jacksonian Democrats proved that they wanted to be guardians of the government, but in reality, showed short in key areas. President Jackson did not uphold the Constitution very well. He went against what the Supreme Court said was unconstitutional and force the Cherokee Nation out of their homeland(Doc g). Going against what the Supreme Court gave a message that President Jackson was prepared to do what he wanted to do, whether it was proven wrong or not. President Jackson also vetoed the U.S. Bank charter which was deemed constitutional in the McCulloch v. Maryland hearing of 1819. President Jackson thought that the bank was a monopoly and thought that the shareholders of the bank used the bank the benefit themselves instead of the nation. This decision angered many people, and in Daniel Webster’s reply to President Jackson’s veto(Doc. C), Webster states â€Å"It manifestly seeks to inflame the poor against the rich; it wantonly attacks whole classes of people, for the purpose of turning against them the prejudices and the resentment of other classes.† Webster thought that Jackson’s veto was a way to get the economic classes to clash together. He blames Jackson that he is trying to separate the country. Webster also states that the veto â€Å"extends the grasp of executive pretension over every power of the government.†, implying that Jackson thinks that he can ove...

The 7 Biggest Social Media Mistakes

The 7 Biggest Social Media Mistakes Social media can be an incredibly valuable tool for you professionally, either for networking or in a  job search. It can also derail your best and most professional efforts by giving a potential employer the wrong impression of you at the worst possible time with these 7 biggest social media mistakes. Here are 7 common social media mistakes you should avoid.1. Inappropriate photosEasiest step: make all of your photos private. More nuanced step: go through and take down any pictures of you high, or partying, or wielding a gun, or wearing an offensive t-shirt, or making an obscene gesture, etc. Sit down with your profile and try to view it as if you were a very conservative professional recruiter. If you cringe, take it down. If it’s even just iffy, take it down.2. DiscriminationNo matter what your personal views, never ever ever post things which discriminate against any person or group on the basis of sex, gender, color, religion, etc., etc. No one will hire you if they thi nk you’re a bigot.3. Badmouthing your current employerâ€Å"Ugh work today sucks #fml† (or equivalent). If a recruiter sees you complaining about your job, your coworkers, or your boss†¦ forget about it. Save those complaints for happy hour with your out-of-work friends.4. Posting during work hoursThis might seem nit-picky, but recruiters might look at the time stamps of your posts. If you’re posting during work hours, they’ll take note. Stick to after hours and weekends for your social media sharing.5. Being a social media ghostConversely, recruiters might just be plain weirded out if you don’t have any social media presence. At very least, make sure you have a LinkedIn profile that’s searchable and recognizable as yours.6. Friending your interviewersJust because your interviewer is being super friendly and you have tons in common, resist the temptation to follow or friend them. This crosses unwritten boundaries and can make people su per uncomfortable. Wait until you get the job.7. Rehashing your interview  onlineOnce you’ve had your interview, resist the urge to post about how well/awful/catastrophic/fantastically it went. Chances are, they’ll see it and it won’t reflect favorably on you.

SMOKING AS A HEART DISEASE FACTOR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

SMOKING AS A HEART DISEASE FACTOR - Essay Example A direct link has been identified between lung cancer and tobacco smoking, as well as other links to respiratory conditions such as bronchitis and emphysema, and to coronary heart diseases (Pocket Dictionary of Biology 1999.) Several clinical trials support these findings as well (Kunz1, Pechlaner, Ho, & Pfister 2005). Smoking increases the risk of developing heart disease and is the leading cause of premature and preventable deaths in the United States alone (Cohen 1999). Smoking is a major risk factor for developing heart disease as it indirectly affects how the heart works and creates an imbalance in the cardiovascular system. For example, smoking causes emphysema, where the lungs lose their elasticity and the individual is often left short of breath. One of the heart's functions is to deliver oxygen, so the reduced surface area in the lungs results in an increased demand for oxygen by the lungs and other muscular organs and tissue. As a result of this increased demand, the heart has to work harder to compensate for this imbalance. If this happens over a long period of time, the heart muscles will weaken and/or change (e.g. heart enlargement, hardening of arteries, fatty deposits) and combined with other risk factors, will lead to heart disease. N The following points summarise the ways in which smoking affects the cardiovascular system. Smoking increases the levels of carbon monoxide which is a poisonous gas. In the long term this gas contributes to the damaged lining of blood vessels and artery hardening (Black 1992). Smoking raises blood levels of fibrinogen which is a clotting agent that causes blood platelets to stick together, increasing the risk of blood clots and blockages in the vascular system (Black 1992). Nicotine raises blood pressure and the heart rate which results in the heart working harder. It also constricts the coronary arteries which results in less supply of blood and oxygen to the heart (Black 1992). However, it is important to be aware of the nature of the various forms of heart disease, as this will increase our understanding of how smoking directly affects the working of the heart and the cardiovascular system. Heart Disease Heart disease consists of a variety of diseases that directly affect the workings of the heart. Arteriosclerotic disease is a result of the occurrence of fatty deposits inside the coronary arteries and blood vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle. When the blood supply from these vessels is slowed down or ceases, the individual will most probably experience angina or a heart attack. High blood pressure occurs when the heart encounters a higher resistance in the blood vessels outside the heart. This results in the enlargement of the heart and thickening of the heart muscle. (Cohen 1992) These factors contribute to reduced efficiency in the cardiovascular system as the heart now requires more oxygen to function and strains its muscle. It also speeds up the process of atherosclerosis by driving blood fat and cholesterol into the blood vessel walls increasing the risk of a heart attack or stroke. Heart failure occurs when the heart becomes excessively stiff or fatigued from worki ng too hard, either because it must pump against too strong a resistance or because there has been a loss of heart

Profesional portfolio Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Profesional portfolio - Assignment Example Developing an effective global workplace is a challenging tasks but necessary for multinational companies because it ensures employees in their companies create a culture of shared values that maintain cohesive and ethical cultures across countries that are difficult to create in a domestic environment. In light of this new definition of global workplace, to me global workplace is considered a workplace with intercultural teams that come together from across different countries to accomplish a business objective for a company using technology and communication, while observing certain ethical and professional behavior for the purpose of minimizing cost. In the same assignment, another change or rather an addition that has been made is the experience of intercultural communication, specifically using Coca-Cola in India as an example. Let us look at the change of intercultural communication. Intercultural communication relates to how people should work in a global workplace because it looks at how individuals from different background of culture attempt to communicate verbally and non-verbally, manage, approach deadlines, work together, meet, build relationships, negotiate and much more (Varner & Beamer, 2011). Individuals and companies that look into doing business within the global workplace usually are unsuccessful in addressing such areas before venturing into business abroad. This has the effect of leading to poor performance and lost business deals. More understanding of differences intercultural in protocol, communication and etiquette in addition to informed planning surely leads to a huge probability of attaining business go als and objectives. Code of conduct is one aspect of intercultural communication that relates to how people work in a global workplace. In a global workplace, a uniform code of conduct is used to address how workers of a company are supposed to behave professionally. For instance,